# Goal-Seeking and Obstacle Avoidance Behaviors for Mobile Robot

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The basic idea of behavior based control is to subdivide the navigation task into small, easy to manage, program and debug behaviors. The world is fundamentally unknown and changing so rather than implementing a fixed plan, we focused on developing a library of useful controllers (robot behaviors) and switch among the controllers in response to environmental changes. Simple behaviors such as goal­seeking and obstacle avoidance are defined and output of these behaviors are blended together in accordance to some coordination rule.

The mechanical design of holonomic (3-wheel omnidirectional) robot and inverse and forward kinematics equations for Holonomic Robot used in the algorithm are explained in my previous post (Kinematic Analysis of Holonomic Robot). Also, PID control of individual wheel motors can be found in DC Motor Speed Control using Encoder Feedback. We can use these behaviors for other robots using akerman drive or bicycle drive, we just have to update the kinematics equations.

### Goal Seeking Behavior

Goal­seeking behavior implements dead­reckoning based on odometry information and is
responsible for movement of robot base from initial position to the goal location. The
robots current location is represented as $ξ\ =\ (​x\ y\ θ)^T​$ and goal location be $G\ =\ (​x_g\ ​y_g\ θ_g)^T$​.

This behavior drives the robot towards goal location depending on the two input variables: the distance between the robot and the goal, $​D_{rg}$ and heading direction towards the goal, $\phi_d$.

Algorithm: Goal-Seeking Behavior \begin{align*} & {\bf Inputs:}\ D_{rg},\ \phi_d,\ tolerable\_error,\ P(constant\ that\ determines\ speed\ of\ robot\ to\ goal)\\ & Obtain\ the\ goal\ location\ G\ = \ \begin{pmatrix} x_g\\ y_g\\ θ_g \end{pmatrix} and\ current\ position\ ξ\ = \begin{pmatrix} x\\ y\\ θ \end{pmatrix} with\ respect\ to\ the\ world\ coordinates.\\ & {\bf while}\ Forever\ {\bf do}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ euclidean\ distance\ from\ robot\ to\ goal\ D_{rg} = \sqrt{(x_g-x)^2+(y_g-y)^2}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ {\bf if}\ D_{rg} < tolerable\_error\ and\ goal\ is\ reached\ {\bf then}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ {\bf exit}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ {\bf end\ if}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Desired\ heading\ direction\ \phi_d\ =\ arctan \left(\frac{x_g-x}{y_g-y}\right)\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ K\ = P * D_{rg},\ where\ K\ is\ a\ constant.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ desired\ x,\ y\ and\ angular\ velocity\ as\ \dot{x} = K*\cos(\phi_d),\ \dot{y} = K*\sin(\phi_d)\ and\ \dot{θ} = K*(\theta_g − \theta).\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ individual\ wheel\ velocities\ using\ inverse\ kinematics\ as\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \begin{bmatrix} V_1\\ V_2\\ V_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -\cos(\theta) & -\sin(\theta) & L\\ \cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & L\\ \cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right) & \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right) & L \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}\\ \dot{y}\\ \dot{\theta} \end{bmatrix}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Wheel\ velocities\ are\ maintained\ using\ encoder\ feedback\ and\ PID\ Controller,\ however\ some\ error\ exist.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Update\ robot\ speed\ using\ actually\ measured\ individual\ wheel\ velocities\ (V_1',\ V_2',\ V_3')\ as\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x'}\\ \dot{y'}\\ \dot{\theta'} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{2}{3}\cos(\theta) & \frac{2}{3}\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right)& \frac{2}{3}\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right)\\ \frac{-2}{3}\sin(\theta) & \frac{-2}{3}\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & \frac{2}{3}\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right)\\ \frac{1}{3L} & \frac{1}{3L} & \frac{1}{3L} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1'\\ V_2'\\ V_3' \end{bmatrix}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Update\ robot\ position\ x=x+\dot{x'}*\delta t,\ y=y+\dot{y'}*\delta t\ and\ \theta = \theta + \dot{\theta'}*\delta t.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \theta = \theta\ mod\ 2\pi\ as\ \theta\ \varepsilon\ [0,2\pi]\\ & {\bf end\ while} \end{align*}\\

### Obstacle Avoidance Behavior

For obstacle avoidance behavior, the robot needs to acquire information about the environment and move in such a way as to avoid collision objects that happens to be in vicinity of the robot. Obstacles are detected using Sharp IR range Finder which provides analog voltage inversely proportional to distance to the obstacle. Eight IR range finder were mounted on top of robot 45 degrees apart.

The distance measured by IR Range Finders in the direction of obstacle is smaller than the distance in other directions. If we take the vector sum of these distance vectors then resultant vector points to direction away from the obstacle as shown in fig 2. Thus, we have to move the robot in the direction of resultant motion vector pointing away from the obstacle.

IR range finder provides analog output voltage which decreases as distance to obstacle increases. Distance to obstacle (D) can be obtained from analog sensor voltage (V) as

$D = \frac{139.33} {V − 1.0489}$

Let distance to obstacle given by IR Range Finder placed 45 degrees apart in anticlockwise direction be represented as $d_i$ for i = 1,2,…8. $D_{safe}$ represents the safe distance between robot and obstacle so that we do not have to avoid that obstacle anymore. $R_{max}$ represents the maximum range of IR Range Finder used.

Algorithm: Goal-Seeking Behavior \begin{align*} & {\bf Inputs:}\ IR\ Sensor\ Readings\ (d_i), safe\_distance\ (D_{safe}), max\_range\ (R_{max})\\ & {\bf repeat}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ {\bf if}\ d_i > R_{max}\ {\bf then}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ d_i\ = \ R_{max}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ {\bf end\ if}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ x\ and\ y\ component\ of\ obstacle\ distance\ as\ d_{ix} = d_i*\cos\left(30*i*\frac{\pi}{180}\right)\ and\ d_{iy} = d_i*\sin\left(30*i*\frac{\pi}{180}\right)\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obstacle\ avoidance\ motion\ vector\ U_{OAx} = \sum_{i=0}^7 d_{ix}\ and\ U_{OAy} = \sum_{i=0}^7 d_{iy} \\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ desired\ x,\ y\ and\ angular\ velocity\ as\ \dot{x} = K*U_{OAx},\ \dot{y} = K*U_{OAy}\ and\ \dot{θ} = 0.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Obtain\ individual\ wheel\ velocities\ using\ inverse\ kinematics\ as\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \begin{bmatrix} V_1\\ V_2\\ V_3 \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -\cos(\theta) & -\sin(\theta) & L\\ \cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & L\\ \cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right) & \sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right) & L \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x}\\ \dot{y}\\ \dot{\theta} \end{bmatrix}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Wheel\ velocities\ are\ maintained\ using\ encoder\ feedback\ and\ PID\ Controller,\ however\ some\ error\ exist.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Update\ robot\ speed\ using\ actually\ measured\ individual\ wheel\ velocities\ (V_1',\ V_2',\ V_3')\ as\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \begin{bmatrix} \dot{x'}\\ \dot{y'}\\ \dot{\theta'} \end{bmatrix} = \begin{bmatrix} -\frac{2}{3}\cos(\theta) & \frac{2}{3}\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right)& \frac{2}{3}\cos\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right)\\ \frac{-2}{3}\sin(\theta) & \frac{-2}{3}\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}-\theta \right) & \frac{2}{3}\sin\left(\frac{\pi}{3}+\theta \right)\\ \frac{1}{3L} & \frac{1}{3L} & \frac{1}{3L} \end{bmatrix} \begin{bmatrix} V_1'\\ V_2'\\ V_3' \end{bmatrix}\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ Update\ robot\ position\ x=x+\dot{x'}*\delta t,\ y=y+\dot{y'}*\delta t\ and\ \theta = \theta + \dot{\theta'}*\delta t.\\ & \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \theta = \theta\ mod\ 2\pi\ as\ \theta\ \varepsilon\ [0,2\pi]\\ & {\bf until} d_i < D_{safe}\ for\ any\ i. \end{align*}\\

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